Islamic Calligraphy - Concise Overview And Basic Principles

Brief Overview :
Islamic art and culture is heavily influenced by both the meaning and form of the written word. Prior to the advent of Islam, the written word was significant. However, with the rise of Islam and the holy book of the Qur’an, the written word became a symbol of both Islamic faith and civilization. Arabic writing, expressed through the fine art of calligraphy, has pervaded the visual arts. The universal custom among the faithful, of reading the Qur’an in Arabic has resulted in the
spread of calligraphic arts throughout the Islamic world, beyond Arabic speaking nations. It is believed that Arabic calligraphy should be a whole subject by itself in modern Arabic schools. Given the position of the written word and the Islamic aversion to figurative images, calligraphy proliferated in Islamic art. As a visual art, the skill of calligraphy relies on the use and knowledge of Arabic. The belief that the Qur’an must be read in Arabic in order to ascertain its proper
meaning has created an environment in which the religious aspects of the word have come to dominate the arts. Thus, the divine importance given to the Arabic language has transformed the word into a symbol of the faith from Africa to Indonesia. The ideographic properties of the word have lead to a tradition of poetry that relies on a blending of meaning derived from the physical appearance of the letters in a poem as well as from the literal meaning of the verse. The elevation of the written word in Islamic culture has made a great contribution to the Islamic arts more
generally. ‘Islamic art’ is a term given by Western art historians to the artistic styles that have existed throughout the regions of the world that have been influenced by Islamic faith and civilization. This Western approach to Islamic art has traditionally concentrated on the unity and commonalities that have been found in art throughout the countries of the Islamic world, mainly in Egypt, the Middle East, Central Asia and Northern India.
Recent in-depth studies have shown the peculiarity of the art of each particular locality. However, while regional
influences of particular Islamic communities exist, Arabic calligraphy provides a unifying theme in Islamic art. While art from individual regions can readily be seen as having an authentic style, the strong influence of Islamic belief that informs each style brings them all under the umbrella of Islamic art. It is also important to consider what is meant by the ‘arts’ in Islam. This will be restricted to the visual arts and poetry. The distinction between craft and art must also be
examined because in Islamic culture the artist and the craftsman are not clearly differentiated. All crafts are intended to be beautiful and thus, artistic. Therefore, the decorative aspects of craft represent legitimate artistic expression and shall be included in the discussion of the written word in Islamic art.

Historically, Western art history has looked at Islamic art primarily in terms of its figurative art. However, art involving the depiction of the written word is more central to Islamic culture. The written word holds an important place in Islamic art and, more generally, in Islamic culture. Moreover, the written word was of importance even before the advent of Islamic culture in these regions at a time when writing was used mainly for administration and commercial purposes.6
It also predated Islamic culture in Arabic art as captions to pictures and in sculpture, as seen on the 2100 BCE statue of Prince Gudea of Lagash, the skirt of which was ornamented with cuneiform script.

Through the prophet Muhammad S.A.W, Allah’s revelation was manifest in the form of the spoken word. Thus, the word became important because of the manner in which Allah had chosen to reveal himself. So the Qur’an, which contained the word of Allah, became the essential element of the Islamic faith. The Qur’an elevates the written word to the centre of human culture: ‘Thy Lord is the Most Bounteous, Who teacheth by the pen, Teacheth man that which he knew not.’
Furthermore, Allah chose the language of Arabic in which to reveal his divine message and so Arabic was viewed by believers to be a divine language in itself. The Qur’an advocates the spreading of the word using the Arabic language.
The Arabic script came to be viewed as having divine authority and was used in all Islamic countries, from Spain to India, regardless of the native languages spoken. The domination of the Islamic culture frequently meant that, while the spoken language of a conquered region was retained, that language came to be written in Arabic script, demonstrating the primacy of the written word in Islam.10 Subsequently, the prevalence of Arabic script helped to spread the appreciation of the written word as art and, therefore, calligraphy developed into an acclaimed form of art. Whereas the beautiful script of Christian monks in the Middle Ages became largely obsolete with the development of the printing press,beautiful script in Islamic culture still remains important and a major art form. For all believers, writing retains its sacred nature and is potentially a spiritual experience.

Calligraphy, which comes from the Greek for ‘beautiful writing,’ is a suitable name for the artistic act of writing found in the Islamic world. It became a highly regarded form of art in Islamic culture from the very first years of the religion. Ali, the fourth caliph, is credited with being the first Islamic calligrapher. Through him, as a relative of the prophet Muhammad, the Kufic script gained religious legitimacy. Some Islamic people even trace the art of calligraphy back to Allah himself, who wrote the original celestial Qur’an. The beauty of calligraphy is seen to enhance the religious appreciation of a text. Of course, the importance of writing has not been solely religious. For example, writing was an essential skill for anyone wishing to achieve a position in administration. In the legal sphere, handwriting was used as verification of a legal document, such as a will. Calligraphy became the principal art form in Islamic culture, developing into a variety of styles and following historical trends. These trends include variations in the use of diacritical marks and in the shapes of the letters. For example, the earlier Kufic script is angular compared to the slightly more rounded Maghribi script of North Africa and Spain.The physical beauty of calligraphy provided an aesthetic dimension to the written language beyond its literal meaning.Great calligraphers are held in reverence for their contribution to the art.

A: Great Teachers

1:Abu ‘Ali M uhammad Ibn ‘Ali, known as Ibn M uqla (“Son of M uqla”) (886-940CE)
Who incorporated the medieval Islamic passion for mathematical and musical harmony with his geometric principles for calligraphy. Codified the six scripts (al aqlam al-sitta) that became the foundation for the practice of calligraphy to come Established a proportional writing system that used a circle with the diameter of the letter alif as its basis
Wrote extensively about the art of calligraphy and devised theories of letter shapes
Biography:
Born in Baghdad
Became a scribe in the administration of the ‘Abbasid caliphate (750-1258)
Became head of the state library
Was made vizier (chief counselor) three times between 928 and 936, all under different rulers
Was imprisoned three times during periods of political turmoil
During one imprisonment, his enemies cut off his right hand. When released, he continued to work with great skill using his
left hand
Finally, his left hand was severed, his tongue cut out, and he was cast into prison where he died

Ibne Muqala's Principles of Arabic Calligraphy:
Arabic Calligraphy is based on 12 important principles:
1. Base-line (Khat-e-Korsee): This is a virtual line that the words will be nested on. It is not necessarily a straight horizontal line. It may be
curved of diagonal but in any case it has to follow certain rules
2. Combination (Tarkib): This principle emphasizes on the harmony between the individual letters and words in relation with one another
to make an appropriate graphical figure as a whole. It is also important to have a nice distribution of darkness and whiteness in the
calligraphy piece as a whole.
3. Proportion (Nesbat): This principle emphasizes on appropriate proportional size of the letters and words in comparison with each
other.
4. Strength (Qovvat) and 5. Slimness (Za’f)
The words “Strength” and “Slimness” represent sturdiness or slimness of the letters or movements whenever appropriate.
6. Flatness (Sath) and 7. Curvature (Dowr)
It shows importance of flatness or roundness of the stretched or curved letters or words whenever appropriate.
8. Descent (Nozoul) and 9. Ascent (So’oud)
These two principles determine where letters or words must be in a slightly move ascending or descending to look more appropriate.
Other principles are summarized as follows:
10. Basics (Ossoul)
11. Virtue (Safaa)
12. Value (Sha’n)

Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Hilal, known as Ibn al-Bawwab (“Son of the Doorman”) (d 1022 CE):brought elegance and grace to the rules set out by Muqla, further beautifying calligraphy. Developed a system of proportional measurement such that each letter could be measured by its height and width in dots.
Biography:
Born a commoner, the son of a doorkeeper
Began his career as a house painter, then became a book illuminator
Took up calligraphy, mastered the known calligraphy scripts, and developed a few new scripts
Was an imam in a mosque in Baghdad
Was a bit eccentric and wore odd clothes
Wrote a famous poem about calligraphy (see below)
Wrote 64 copies of the Koran, only one of which still exists (in Dublin’s Chester Beatty Library)
Excerpts from a poem on calligraphy
In the name of God, the
merciful, the compassionate.
To him is the voyage and the
return.
O you who seek perfection of
writing and desire beautiful
calligraphy and forms,
If your dedication to writing is
true, then be pleased that
your Lord has made it easy.
Learn all the pens [styles], each
one treasured and lively, that
make the inky art like the jeweler's craft
Don't be ashamed by the
ugliness you will write in the
first stages of your practice,
Because the job will be hard,
then easy. How often ease
comes after distress.
When you have reached the
goal you desired and you are
pleased and happy,
Thank your God and follow his
desires. God loves the
thankful.
Be pleased with your hand,
whose fingers write so well,
leaving beautiful works
behind in the abode of
illusion.

3 Yaqut al-Musta'simi (also Yakut-i Musta'simi) (died 1298)

The third great calligrapher, Yaqut al-Musta‘simi (d 1289CE) made innovations to calligraphy by cutting the qalam (calligraphy reed) nib at an angle,thus achieving more fineness and beauty in the writing. He was a well known calligrapher and the Turkish or Ethiopian secretary of the last Abbasid caliph. He codified six basic calligraphic styles of the Arabic script.Naskh script was said to have been revealed and taught to the scribe in a vision. He developed Yakuti, a handwriting named after him, described as a thuluth of "a particularly elegant and beautiful type.Supposedly he had copied the Qur'an more than a thousand times.
.
These people are recognized for their creative role in the development of the written word as a fine art. Transcribing the word of Allah was an important task, as there was a constant demand for the Qur’an which encouraged the continual development of the art form. For instance, it was traditional for a person to be buried with a Qur’an behind their left shoulder. This meant that every individual required a copy. The acquisition of the holy book usually cost a lower-middle family the equivalent of their living expenses for a fortnight, illustrating the value that was placed on owning the written word of god. However, the outright purchase of a Qur’an was discouraged and transactions were often disguised as a monetary donation to the calligrapher.25 The Qur’anic calligrapher had a highly responsible job as a reproducer of the holy book. There was an expectation that medieval calligraphers would be ascetic, similar to the religious class. It was assumed that Islamic calligraphers shared a special affiliation with words and letters and this relationship was even viewed by some as devotional love.

The Scripts

1: Kufic (کوفی):
Kufic is the oldest calligraphic form of the various Arabic scripts and consists of a modified form of the old Nabataean script. Kufic developed around the end of the 7th century in Kufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name, and other centres.Until about the 11th century it was the main script used to copy Qur'ans.Professional copyists employed a particular form of kufic for reproducing the earliest surviving copies of the Qur'an, which were written on parchment and date from the 8th to 10th centuries.
Kufic is commonly seen on Seljuk coins and monuments and on early Ottoman coins. Its decorative character led to its use as a decorative element in several public and domestic buildings constructed prior to the Republican period in Turkey.The current flag of Iraq uses Kufic script to write ألله أكبر Allahu Akbar
Square or geometric KuficSquare or geometric Kufic is a very simplified rectangular style of Kufic widely used for tiling. In Iran sometimes entire buildings are covered with tiles spelling sacred names like those of God, Muhammad and Ali in square Kufic, a technique known as banna'i (related to Building).
2: Naskh نسخ‎
is a simple cursive writing that was used in correspondence before the calligraphers started using it for Qur'an writing. It is slender and supple, without any particular emphasis, and highly readable. It remains among the most widespread styles. The most famous calligrapher of this genre was Hâfiz Osman, an Ottoman calligrapher who lived during the 17th century. It is the basis of modern Arabic print.
It is a specific calligraphic style for writing in the Arabic alphabet, thought to be invented by the calligrapher Ibn Muqlah Shirazi . The root of this Arabic term nasakh-a (نسخ) means "to copy". It either refers to the fact that it replaced its predecessor, Kufic script, or that this style allows faster copying of texts. With small modifications, it is the style most commonly used for printing Arabic, Persian, Pashto and Sindhi languages.
This type of script was derived from Thuluth by introducing a number of modifications resulting in smaller size and greater delicacy. It is written using a small, very fine pen known as a cava pen, which makes the script eminently suitable for use in book production. Naskhi was used in copying Qur'ans,^[1] Delails, En-ams and Hadiths. It was also used in commentaries on the Qur'an (Tafsir) and in collections ofpoetry (Divan). It was and is a very widely used form of script.
Naskh, along with Ta'liq, is also famous for giving rise to the Nasta'līq script, the script used for writing Urdu, Persian, Punjabi, Kashmiri, and sometimes Pashto and Uyghur.

3. Thuluth (ثلث‎ sols, "one-third")
is a script variety of Islamic calligraphy invented by the Persian Ibn Muqlah Shirazi ,which made its first appearance in the 11th century CE (fourth Hijri). The straight angular forms of Kufic were replaced in the new script by curved and oblique lines. In Thuluth, one-third of each letter slopes, from which the name (meaning "a third" in Arabic) comes. It is a large and elegant, cursive script, used in medieval times on mosque decorations. Various calligraphic styles evolved from Thuluth through slight changes of form.It is a more monumental and energetic writing style, with elongated verticals. It was used by Mamluks during the 14th–15th centuries. However the style was transformed and refined by Ottoman calligraphers. Today the masters of this style still live inTurkey including Hüseyin Kutlu and Fuat Başar.
The greatest contributions to the evolution of the Thuluth script, occurred during Ottoman Empire in three successive steps that OttomanArt Historians call "calligraphical revolutions":

The first revolution occurred in the 15th century and was initiated by the Master Calligrapher Şeyh Hamdullah.

The second revolution resulted from the work of the Ottoman calligrapher Hâfız Osman in the 17th century.

Finally, in the late 19th century, Mehmed Şevkî Efendi gave the script the distinctive shape it has today.

4. Tawqīʿ: appeared under the Abbasid Caliphate, when it was used to sign official acts. With elongated verticals and wide curves under the writing line, it remained a little-used script.
5. Riqaa': was a miniature version of tawqi'. It has nothing to do with ruq`ah, a much later style the Ottomans developed for secular handwriting, and which is still used at the present day in the Arab countries that fell within the Ottoman cultural sphere.
5. Muḥaqqaq: is an ample, alert script. Letter endings are elongated and their curves underline the text.
6. Rīḥānī or rayḥānī: is a miniature version of muḥaqqaq.